[1]
Wiersinga WM, Bartalena L. Epidemiology and prevention of Graves' ophthalmopathy. Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association. 2002 Oct:12(10):855-60
[PubMed PMID: 12487767]
[2]
Bartley GB. The epidemiologic characteristics and clinical course of ophthalmopathy associated with autoimmune thyroid disease in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society. 1994:92():477-588
[PubMed PMID: 7886878]
[3]
McKenzie JM. Humoral factors in the pathogenesis of Graves' disease. Physiological reviews. 1968 Jan:48(1):252-310
[PubMed PMID: 4865519]
[4]
Moshkelgosha S, So PW, Deasy N, Diaz-Cano S, Banga JP. Cutting edge: retrobulbar inflammation, adipogenesis, and acute orbital congestion in a preclinical female mouse model of Graves' orbitopathy induced by thyrotropin receptor plasmid-in vivo electroporation. Endocrinology. 2013 Sep:154(9):3008-15. doi: 10.1210/en.2013-1576. Epub 2013 Jul 30
[PubMed PMID: 23900776]
[5]
Valyasevi RW, Erickson DZ, Harteneck DA, Dutton CM, Heufelder AE, Jyonouchi SC, Bahn RS. Differentiation of human orbital preadipocyte fibroblasts induces expression of functional thyrotropin receptor. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 1999 Jul:84(7):2557-62
[PubMed PMID: 10404836]
[6]
Khoo TK, Coenen MJ, Schiefer AR, Kumar S, Bahn RS. Evidence for enhanced Thy-1 (CD90) expression in orbital fibroblasts of patients with Graves' ophthalmopathy. Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association. 2008 Dec:18(12):1291-6. doi: 10.1089/thy.2008.0255. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 18976167]
[7]
Smith TJ, Koumas L, Gagnon A, Bell A, Sempowski GD, Phipps RP, Sorisky A. Orbital fibroblast heterogeneity may determine the clinical presentation of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2002 Jan:87(1):385-92
[PubMed PMID: 11788681]
[8]
Feliciello A, Porcellini A, Ciullo I, Bonavolontà G, Avvedimento EV, Fenzi G. Expression of thyrotropin-receptor mRNA in healthy and Graves' disease retro-orbital tissue. Lancet (London, England). 1993 Aug 7:342(8867):337-8
[PubMed PMID: 8101586]
[9]
Bahn RS. Graves' ophthalmopathy. The New England journal of medicine. 2010 Feb 25:362(8):726-38. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra0905750. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 20181974]
[10]
Sabini E, Mazzi B, Profilo MA, Mautone T, Casini G, Rocchi R, Ionni I, Menconi F, Leo M, Nardi M, Vitti P, Marcocci C, Marinò M. High Serum Cholesterol Is a Novel Risk Factor for Graves' Orbitopathy: Results of a Cross-Sectional Study. Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association. 2018 Mar:28(3):386-394. doi: 10.1089/thy.2017.0430. Epub 2018 Feb 9
[PubMed PMID: 29336220]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidence
[11]
Rosen ED, MacDougald OA. Adipocyte differentiation from the inside out. Nature reviews. Molecular cell biology. 2006 Dec:7(12):885-96
[PubMed PMID: 17139329]
[12]
Pritchard J, Han R, Horst N, Cruikshank WW, Smith TJ. Immunoglobulin activation of T cell chemoattractant expression in fibroblasts from patients with Graves' disease is mediated through the insulin-like growth factor I receptor pathway. Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950). 2003 Jun 15:170(12):6348-54
[PubMed PMID: 12794168]
[13]
Bahn RS. Clinical review 157: Pathophysiology of Graves' ophthalmopathy: the cycle of disease. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2003 May:88(5):1939-46
[PubMed PMID: 12727937]
[14]
Stan MN, Bahn RS. Risk factors for development or deterioration of Graves' ophthalmopathy. Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association. 2010 Jul:20(7):777-83. doi: 10.1089/thy.2010.1634. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 20578901]
[15]
Perros P, Crombie AL, Matthews JN, Kendall-Taylor P. Age and gender influence the severity of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy: a study of 101 patients attending a combined thyroid-eye clinic. Clinical endocrinology. 1993 Apr:38(4):367-72
[PubMed PMID: 8319368]
[16]
Khalilzadeh O, Noshad S, Rashidi A, Amirzargar A. Graves' ophthalmopathy: a review of immunogenetics. Current genomics. 2011 Dec:12(8):564-75. doi: 10.2174/138920211798120844. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 22654556]
[17]
Boelaert K, Newby PR, Simmonds MJ, Holder RL, Carr-Smith JD, Heward JM, Manji N, Allahabadia A, Armitage M, Chatterjee KV, Lazarus JH, Pearce SH, Vaidya B, Gough SC, Franklyn JA. Prevalence and relative risk of other autoimmune diseases in subjects with autoimmune thyroid disease. The American journal of medicine. 2010 Feb:123(2):183.e1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.06.030. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 20103030]
[18]
Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM. Smoking a risk factor for hypothyroidism [correction of hyperthyroidism]. Journal of endocrinological investigation. 1993 Nov:16(10):827
[PubMed PMID: 8144858]
[19]
Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, Manetti L, Tanda ML, Dell'Unto E, Bruno-Bossio G, Nardi M, Bartolomei MP, Lepri A, Rossi G, Martino E, Pinchera A. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves' ophthalmopathy. The New England journal of medicine. 1998 Jan 8:338(2):73-8
[PubMed PMID: 9420337]
[20]
Sonino N, Girelli ME, Boscaro M, Fallo F, Busnardo B, Fava GA. Life events in the pathogenesis of Graves' disease. A controlled study. Acta endocrinologica. 1993 Apr:128(4):293-6
[PubMed PMID: 8498147]
[21]
Wall JR, Lahooti H, Hibbert EJ, Champion B. Relationship between Clinical and Immunological Features of Thyroid Autoimmunity and Ophthalmopathy during Pregnancy. Journal of thyroid research. 2015:2015():698470. doi: 10.1155/2015/698470. Epub 2015 Dec 21
[PubMed PMID: 26798548]
[22]
RUNDLE FF, WILSON CW. Development and course of exophthalmos and ophthalmoplegia in Graves' disease with special reference to the effect of thyroidectomy. Clinical science. 1945:5(3-4):177-94
[PubMed PMID: 21011937]
[23]
Meyer P, Das T, Ghadiri N, Murthy R, Theodoropoulou S. Clinical pathophysiology of thyroid eye disease: The Cone Model. Eye (London, England). 2019 Feb:33(2):244-253. doi: 10.1038/s41433-018-0302-1. Epub 2019 Jan 18
[PubMed PMID: 30659242]
[24]
Kim IT, Choi JB. Normal range of exophthalmos values on orbit computerized tomography in Koreans. Ophthalmologica. Journal international d'ophtalmologie. International journal of ophthalmology. Zeitschrift fur Augenheilkunde. 2001 May-Jun:215(3):156-62
[PubMed PMID: 11340383]
[25]
Burch HB, Wartofsky L. Graves' ophthalmopathy: current concepts regarding pathogenesis and management. Endocrine reviews. 1993 Dec:14(6):747-93
[PubMed PMID: 8119236]
[27]
Naik MN, Vasanthapuram VH. Demographic and clinical profile of 1000 patients with thyroid eye disease presenting to a Tertiary Eye Care Institute in India. International ophthalmology. 2021 Jan:41(1):231-236. doi: 10.1007/s10792-020-01571-6. Epub 2020 Aug 25
[PubMed PMID: 32844239]
[28]
Gilbard JP, Farris RL. Ocular surface drying and tear film osmolarity in thyroid eye disease. Acta ophthalmologica. 1983 Feb:61(1):108-16
[PubMed PMID: 6687972]
[29]
Chng CL, Seah LL, Khoo DH. Ethnic differences in the clinical presentation of Graves' ophthalmopathy. Best practice & research. Clinical endocrinology & metabolism. 2012 Jun:26(3):249-58. doi: 10.1016/j.beem.2011.10.004. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 22632362]
[30]
NAFFZIGER HC. Progressive exophthalmos. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 1954 Jul:15(1):1-24
[PubMed PMID: 13189321]
[31]
Detorakis ET. Spontaneous medial orbital decompression associated with medial wall remodeling in Graves' orbitopathy. Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery. 2014 Jan-Feb:30(1):79-80. doi: 10.1097/01.iop.0000440710.92392.1e. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 24398502]
[32]
Nagy EV, Toth J, Kaldi I, Damjanovich J, Mezosi E, Lenkey A, Toth L, Szabo J, Karanyi Z, Leovey A. Graves' ophthalmopathy: eye muscle involvement in patients with diplopia. European journal of endocrinology. 2000 Jun:142(6):591-7
[PubMed PMID: 10832104]
[33]
Kazim M, Trokel SL, Acaroglu G, Elliott A. Reversal of dysthyroid optic neuropathy following orbital fat decompression. The British journal of ophthalmology. 2000 Jun:84(6):600-5
[PubMed PMID: 10837384]
[34]
Pérez-López M, Sales-Sanz M, Rebolleda G, Casas-Llera P, González-Gordaliza C, Jarrín E, Muñoz-Negrete FJ. Retrobulbar ocular blood flow changes after orbital decompression in Graves' ophthalmopathy measured by color Doppler imaging. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2011 Jul 29:52(8):5612-7. doi: 10.1167/iovs.10-6907. Epub 2011 Jul 29
[PubMed PMID: 21498614]
[35]
Werner SC. Classification of the eye changes of Graves' disease. American journal of ophthalmology. 1969 Oct:68(4):646-8
[PubMed PMID: 5394450]
[36]
Werner SC. Modification of the classification of the eye changes of Graves' disease. American journal of ophthalmology. 1977 May:83(5):725-7
[PubMed PMID: 577380]
[37]
Van Dyk HJ. Orbital Graves' disease. A modification of the "NO SPECS" classification. Ophthalmology. 1981 Jun:88(6):479-83
[PubMed PMID: 6894971]
[38]
Mourits MP, Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM, Koornneef L. Clinical activity score as a guide in the management of patients with Graves' ophthalmopathy. Clinical endocrinology. 1997 Jul:47(1):9-14
[PubMed PMID: 9302365]
[39]
Polito E, Leccisotti A. MRI in Graves orbitopathy: recognition of enlarged muscles and prediction of steroid response. Ophthalmologica. Journal international d'ophtalmologie. International journal of ophthalmology. Zeitschrift fur Augenheilkunde. 1995:209(4):182-6
[PubMed PMID: 8545089]
[40]
Barrett L, Glatt HJ, Burde RM, Gado MH. Optic nerve dysfunction in thyroid eye disease: CT. Radiology. 1988 May:167(2):503-7
[PubMed PMID: 3357962]
[41]
Monteiro ML, Gonçalves AC, Silva CT, Moura JP, Ribeiro CS, Gebrim EM. Diagnostic ability of Barrett's index to detect dysthyroid optic neuropathy using multidetector computed tomography. Clinics (Sao Paulo, Brazil). 2008 Jun:63(3):301-6
[PubMed PMID: 18568237]
[42]
Segni M, Bartley GB, Garrity JA, Bergstralh EJ, Gorman CA. Comparability of proptosis measurements by different techniques. American journal of ophthalmology. 2002 Jun:133(6):813-8
[PubMed PMID: 12036674]
[43]
Nugent RA, Belkin RI, Neigel JM, Rootman J, Robertson WD, Spinelli J, Graeb DA. Graves orbitopathy: correlation of CT and clinical findings. Radiology. 1990 Dec:177(3):675-82
[PubMed PMID: 2243967]
[44]
Tiong TYV, Sundar G, Young SM, Makmur A, Yong HRC, Wong YLJ, Lang SS, Tan AP. A Novel Method of CT Exophthalmometry in Patients With Thyroid Eye Disease. Asia-Pacific journal of ophthalmology (Philadelphia, Pa.). 2020 Jan-Feb:9(1):39-43. doi: 10.1097/01.APO.0000617908.29733.84. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 31990744]
[45]
Kahaly GJ. Imaging in thyroid-associated orbitopathy. European journal of endocrinology. 2001 Aug:145(2):107-18
[PubMed PMID: 11454505]
[47]
Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Tanda ML, Manetti L, Dell'Unto E, Bartolomei MP, Nardi M, Martino E, Pinchera A. Cigarette smoking and treatment outcomes in Graves ophthalmopathy. Annals of internal medicine. 1998 Oct 15:129(8):632-5
[PubMed PMID: 9786811]
[48]
Karlsson F, Westermark K, Dahlberg PA, Jansson R, Enoksson P. Ophthalmopathy and thyroid stimulation. Lancet (London, England). 1989 Sep 16:2(8664):691
[PubMed PMID: 2570950]
[49]
Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM, Mourits MP, Koornneef L, Berghout A, van der Gaag R. Effect of abnormal thyroid function on the severity of Graves' ophthalmopathy. Archives of internal medicine. 1990 May:150(5):1098-101
[PubMed PMID: 1691908]
[50]
Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Bartalena L, Prummel M, Stahl M, Altea MA, Nardi M, Pitz S, Boboridis K, Sivelli P, von Arx G, Mourits MP, Baldeschi L, Bencivelli W, Wiersinga W, European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy. Selenium and the course of mild Graves' orbitopathy. The New England journal of medicine. 2011 May 19:364(20):1920-31. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1012985. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 21591944]
[51]
Bartalena L, Krassas GE, Wiersinga W, Marcocci C, Salvi M, Daumerie C, Bournaud C, Stahl M, Sassi L, Veronesi G, Azzolini C, Boboridis KG, Mourits MP, Soeters MR, Baldeschi L, Nardi M, Currò N, Boschi A, Bernard M, von Arx G, European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy. Efficacy and safety of three different cumulative doses of intravenous methylprednisolone for moderate to severe and active Graves' orbitopathy. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2012 Dec:97(12):4454-63. doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-2389. Epub 2012 Oct 4
[PubMed PMID: 23038682]
[52]
Sisti E, Menconi F, Leo M, Profilo MA, Mautone T, Mazzi B, Rocchi R, Latrofa F, Nardi M, Vitti P, Marcocci C, Marinò M. Long-term outcome of Graves' orbitopathy following high-dose intravenous glucocorticoids and orbital radiotherapy. Journal of endocrinological investigation. 2015 Jun:38(6):661-8. doi: 10.1007/s40618-015-0241-7. Epub 2015 Jan 18
[PubMed PMID: 25596664]
[53]
Rivera-Grana E, Lin P, Suhler EB, Rosenbaum JT. Methotrexate as a Corticosteroid-Sparing Agent for Thyroid Eye Disease. Journal of clinical & experimental ophthalmology. 2015 Apr:6(2):. pii: 422. Epub 2015 Apr 27
[PubMed PMID: 26807304]
[54]
Rajendram R, Lee RW, Potts MJ, Rose GE, Jain R, Olver JM, Bremner F, Hurel S, Cook A, Gattamaneni R, Tomlinson M, Plowman N, Bunce C, Hollinghurst SP, Kingston L, Jackson S, Dick AD, Rumsey N, Morris OC, Dayan CM, Uddin JM. Protocol for the combined immunosuppression & radiotherapy in thyroid eye disease (CIRTED) trial: a multi-centre, double-masked, factorial randomised controlled trial. Trials. 2008 Jan 31:9():6. doi: 10.1186/1745-6215-9-6. Epub 2008 Jan 31
[PubMed PMID: 18237441]
[55]
Ye X, Bo X, Hu X, Cui H, Lu B, Shao J, Wang J. Efficacy and safety of mycophenolate mofetil in patients with active moderate-to-severe Graves' orbitopathy. Clinical endocrinology. 2017 Feb:86(2):247-255. doi: 10.1111/cen.13170. Epub 2016 Sep 7
[PubMed PMID: 27484048]
[56]
Salvi M, Vannucchi G, Currò N, Campi I, Covelli D, Dazzi D, Simonetta S, Guastella C, Pignataro L, Avignone S, Beck-Peccoz P. Efficacy of B-cell targeted therapy with rituximab in patients with active moderate to severe Graves' orbitopathy: a randomized controlled study. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2015 Feb:100(2):422-31. doi: 10.1210/jc.2014-3014. Epub 2014 Dec 15
[PubMed PMID: 25494967]
Level 1 (high-level) evidence
[57]
Smith TJ, Kahaly GJ, Ezra DG, Fleming JC, Dailey RA, Tang RA, Harris GJ, Antonelli A, Salvi M, Goldberg RA, Gigantelli JW, Couch SM, Shriver EM, Hayek BR, Hink EM, Woodward RM, Gabriel K, Magni G, Douglas RS. Teprotumumab for Thyroid-Associated Ophthalmopathy. The New England journal of medicine. 2017 May 4:376(18):1748-1761. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1614949. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 28467880]
[58]
Zang S, Ponto KA, Kahaly GJ. Clinical review: Intravenous glucocorticoids for Graves' orbitopathy: efficacy and morbidity. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2011 Feb:96(2):320-32. doi: 10.1210/jc.2010-1962. Epub 2011 Jan 14
[PubMed PMID: 21239515]
[59]
Lyons CJ, Rootman J. Orbital decompression for disfiguring exophthalmos in thyroid orbitopathy. Ophthalmology. 1994 Feb:101(2):223-30
[PubMed PMID: 8115142]
[60]
Choe CH, Cho RI, Elner VM. Comparison of lateral and medial orbital decompression for the treatment of compressive optic neuropathy in thyroid eye disease. Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery. 2011 Jan-Feb:27(1):4-11. doi: 10.1097/IOP.0b013e3181df6a87. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 20736873]
[61]
Sellari-Franceschini S, Lenzi R, Santoro A, Muscatello L, Rocchi R, Altea MA, Nardi M, Megna L, Marcocci C. Lateral wall orbital decompression in Graves' orbitopathy. International journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery. 2010 Jan:39(1):16-20. doi: 10.1016/j.ijom.2009.10.011. Epub 2009 Nov 14
[PubMed PMID: 19914801]
[62]
Ben Simon GJ, Syed HM, Lee S, Wang DY, Schwarcz RM, McCann JD, Goldberg RA. Strabismus after deep lateral wall orbital decompression in thyroid-related orbitopathy patients using automated hess screen. Ophthalmology. 2006 Jun:113(6):1050-5
[PubMed PMID: 16751042]
[63]
Kennedy DW, Goodstein ML, Miller NR, Zinreich SJ. Endoscopic transnasal orbital decompression. Archives of otolaryngology--head & neck surgery. 1990 Mar:116(3):275-82
[PubMed PMID: 2306344]
[64]
Unal M, Leri F, Konuk O, Hasanreisoğlu B. Balanced orbital decompression combined with fat removal in Graves ophthalmopathy: do we really need to remove the third wall? Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery. 2003 Mar:19(2):112-8
[PubMed PMID: 12644756]
[65]
OGURA JH, WALSH TE. The transantral orbital decompression operation for progressive exophthalmos. The Laryngoscope. 1962 Aug:72():1078-97
[PubMed PMID: 14481327]
[66]
Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC. An orbital decompression for severe dysthyroid exophthalmos. Ophthalmology. 1982 May:89(5):467-72
[PubMed PMID: 6896562]
[67]
Olivari N. Transpalpebral decompression of endocrine ophthalmopathy (Graves' disease) by removal of intraorbital fat: experience with 147 operations over 5 years. Plastic and reconstructive surgery. 1991 Apr:87(4):627-41; discussion 642-3
[PubMed PMID: 2008461]
[68]
Leone CR Jr, Piest KL, Newman RJ. Medial and lateral wall decompression for thyroid ophthalmopathy. American journal of ophthalmology. 1989 Aug 15:108(2):160-6
[PubMed PMID: 2757096]
[69]
Goldberg RA, Perry JD, Hortaleza V, Tong JT. Strabismus after balanced medial plus lateral wall versus lateral wall only orbital decompression for dysthyroid orbitopathy. Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery. 2000 Jul:16(4):271-7
[PubMed PMID: 10923974]
[70]
Rootman DB. Orbital decompression for thyroid eye disease. Survey of ophthalmology. 2018 Jan-Feb:63(1):86-104. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2017.03.007. Epub 2017 Mar 24
[PubMed PMID: 28343872]
Level 3 (low-level) evidence
[71]
Yeşiltaş YS, Gündüz AK. Idiopathic Orbital Inflammation: Review of Literature and New Advances. Middle East African journal of ophthalmology. 2018 Apr-Jun:25(2):71-80. doi: 10.4103/meajo.MEAJO_44_18. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 30122852]
Level 3 (low-level) evidence
[72]
Olsen TG, Heegaard S. Orbital lymphoma. Survey of ophthalmology. 2019 Jan-Feb:64(1):45-66. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2018.08.002. Epub 2018 Aug 23
[PubMed PMID: 30144455]
Level 3 (low-level) evidence
[74]
Banerjee P, Alam MS, Subramanian N, Kundu D, Koka K, Poonam NS, Mukherjee B. Orbital and adnexal amyloidosis: Thirty years experience at a tertiary eye care center. Indian journal of ophthalmology. 2021 May:69(5):1161-1166. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_2528_20. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 33913851]
[75]
Kazim M, Gold KG. A review of surgical techniques to correct upper eyelid retraction associated with thyroid eye disease. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2011 Sep:22(5):391-3. doi: 10.1097/ICU.0b013e3283499433. Epub
[PubMed PMID: 21730842]
Level 3 (low-level) evidence